In the rugged interior of the Horn of Africa, long before the rise of modern nationalist movements, a flame of resistance burned fiercely. It was not ignited in European capitals or shaped in colonial drawing rooms—it was born in the Somali deserts, in mosques and poetry circles, and in the minds of determined youth. That flame was the Dervish Movement (Dhaqdhaqaaqa Daraawiish), a Somali-led Islamic and anti-colonial struggle that challenged the might of the British Empire, the Italian colonizers, and the Ethiopian monarchy.
From 1899 to 1920, under the uncompromising leadership of Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, the Dervish Movement established one of Africa’s most enduring early liberation efforts. Today, its legacy is deeply etched in Somali identity, often remembered as a precursor to African decolonization and as one of the few movements that successfully created a proto-state with its own institutions, leadership, and international dealings.
Born in the Sands: The Rise of the Dervishes
The late 19th century was a time of violent colonial expansion across Africa. Somalia found itself divided by competing imperial powers—Britain in the north, Italy in the south, and Ethiopia encroaching from the west. Amid this dismemberment, one voice rose in defiance: that of Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a charismatic Sufi scholar, warrior, and poet of the Salihiyya order.
Frustrated by the betrayal of local leaders who collaborated with colonial authorities and disillusioned by the spiritual compromises of other Islamic orders, Hassan embarked on a mission to unite Somalis under a religious and nationalist banner. His goal was clear: liberate Somali lands, expel foreign occupiers, and establish an Islamic state rooted in Sufi ideals.
By 1905, the movement had attracted over 25,000 young Somali men, transcending clan divisions—a remarkable feat in the segmented Somali society. The Dervishes emerged not just as rebels, but as state-builders, establishing administrative capitals in Ilig and later Taleh, forming a ruling council (Khususi), and even engaging diplomatically with the Ottoman Empire and Italy.
Fire and Faith: Confronting the Colonizers
The Dervish Movement declared war on colonialism with fire, sword, and verse. In 1900, they scored their first military victory at the Battle of Jigjiga, defeating Ethiopian forces and retrieving stolen livestock. This early success electrified Somali resistance.
Between 1901 and 1913, the Dervishes launched repeated raids on British forts, disrupted colonial trade routes, and resisted Christian Ethiopian advances into Somali territory. In a region where colonial forces were accustomed to quick domination, the Dervishes posed an enduring military and ideological challenge.
In response, the British sought to weaponize clan divisions, supplying rival Somali groups with arms to undercut Dervish influence. Despite these efforts, the Dervishes held their ground, bolstered by their religious commitment, their mobile guerrilla tactics, and their deep knowledge of the terrain.
In 1905, Hassan signed the Ilig Treaty with Italy, receiving control over the Nugaal Valley and gaining a temporary safe haven from British attacks. However, this uneasy alliance with Italy would later fray, as Hassan resumed attacks on colonial positions. The Dervish capital at Taleh became a symbol of Somali resilience—a fortress carved from the desert, housing courts, mosques, and military garrisons.
From Glory to Guerrilla: The Movement’s Decline
Despite its early triumphs, the Dervish Movement began to unravel. By 1910, internal strains emerged. The Dervishes, once seen as liberators, began alienating local communities through harsh taxation and indiscriminate raids. Even their spiritual base was shaken when Sayyid Mohammed was reportedly excommunicated by the head of the Salihiyya order in Mecca—a serious blow in a deeply religious society.
During World War I, the Dervish Movement aligned itself with the Ottoman Empire and the Central Powers, hoping to tip the balance in their favor. But global conflicts brought greater British resolve. In 1920, the British unleashed one of the first aerial bombing campaigns in African history against Taleh, devastating Dervish infrastructure and forcing the final collapse of the movement.
Sayyid Mohammed fled to the Ogaden region, where he died in 1921. The dream of a united, independent Somali Islamic state was buried—but not forgotten.
Local Perspectives: A Hero to His People
In Somali oral traditions, Sayyid Mohammed is remembered as “The Mad Mullah” by the British, but as a national hero and poet-warrior by his people. His verses are still recited in Somali homes, and his defiance remains a point of national pride.
To many Somalis, the Dervish Movement was not just a military campaign—it was a cultural renaissance, a moment when Somali identity asserted itself proudly in the face of foreign domination. His pan-Somali vision, spiritual leadership, and ability to transcend clan divisions still inspire political movements and thinkers across the Horn of Africa.
Western Narratives: Demonization and Distortion
From a Western colonial perspective, Sayyid Mohammed was a problem—an “obstacle to civilization,” a “fanatical troublemaker,” and, most famously, “The Mad Mullah”. This colonial caricature served to justify the British Empire’s brutal suppression of Somali resistance and to obscure the Dervishes’ legitimate demands for self-determination.
Historians in Europe and North America often framed the Dervish Movement as irrational or religious extremism, failing to recognize it as an early nationalist struggle. However, in recent decades, some Western scholars have re-examined the movement more sympathetically, acknowledging its political sophistication, its proto-state structure, and its role in anti-colonial resistance.
Pan-African Legacy: The Dervishes and African Resistance
The Dervish Movement deserves its place alongside other great African resistance movements—like the Maji Maji Rebellion in Tanzania, the Ashanti Wars in Ghana, and the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya. It represents one of the first sustained attempts by an African people to reject the Scramble for Africa and to build a sovereign political entity rooted in indigenous values.
Sayyid Mohammed was not fighting for personal power—he was fighting for a vision of a united, free, and spiritually anchored Somali nation. That vision, though crushed by superior weaponry, survives in the hearts of many across Africa.
In an age of ongoing foreign interference, resource exploitation, and cultural marginalization, the story of the Dervishes remains profoundly relevant. It challenges us to reclaim our narratives, celebrate our resistance heroes, and remember that Africa’s history did not begin with colonization—it began with sovereignty, struggle, and spirit.
A Movement Beyond Its Time
The Dervish Movement was more than a footnote in colonial history—it was a foreshadowing of Africa’s future. It showed that African people could resist, govern, dream, and die for their freedom. Sayyid Mohammed and his followers may have been defeated militarily, but their spiritual and political legacy lives on.
For Somalia, for Africa, and for all peoples still wrestling with the scars of colonialism, the Dervish story is not over. It is a call to memory—and a call to action.